Assessment of groundwater quality in northern West Bank, Palestine: source of pollution, health risk, and management

Abstract

Access to clean and safe water is extremely important, not only in Palestine, but also worldwide. In the West Bank, Palestine, groundwater extracted from wells and springs serves as the primary source of drinking water. However, this vital resource is increasingly under pressure due to growing water demand driven by rapid population growth, coupled with limited control over water resources. This study aimed to assess the quality of groundwater in terms of physico-chemical and microbiological properties, as well as heavy metal concentrations, to identify health risks and groundwater management, and to propose recommendations for groundwater management in the West Bank, Palestine. In this study, a total of 63 samples were collected from 49 wells and 14 springs extended across the Northern West Bank, Palestine. Parameters from samples collected for lab analysis include (pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrate (NO₃), Fluoride (F), sulfate (SO₄), total hardness (TH), chloride (Cl), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K), zinc (Zn), barium (Ba), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), total alkalinity (TA), bicarbonate (HCO₃), Fecal Coliform (FC), Total Coliform (TC)). Statistical analysis and a GIS were used to analyze the results of the lab examinations for the collected groundwater samples to facilitate the assessment of the sources of pollution and the impact of these pollutants on human health. The conformity of these parameters with local and international standards is essential to verifying drinking water quality. Groundwater quality is widely affected by human activities, including agricultural and industrial activities, the presence of cesspits in rural areas, and untreated wastewater from both Palestinian main cities and Israeli settlements. Based on the results, 38.8% of nitrate and 10% of potassium concentrations in groundwater samples exceed the permissible limit set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Palestinian Standards Institution (PSI), therefore, health problems arise as a limiting factor for life quality and welfare in this region. Moreover, 87.7% of samples are classified as very hard water. Furthermore, fecal coliform levels are higher in springs than in wells, increasing the need for continuous chlorination, especially in contaminated sources. In the classification of groundwater wells and springs based on the Piper diagram, 65% of the groundwater wells were normal earth alkaline water with prevailing bicarbonate (Ca-Mg-HCO3). WQI values indicated that the majority of the analysed samples were of good quality, with only one spring showing poor quality. Likewise, the ranges of total hazard index (THI) in all sampling locations varied considerably and extended from 0.093 to 3.010 for adults, 0.290 to 3.080 for children, and 0.302 to 3.210 for infants. These results widely indicate that infants are more exposed to health risks. Moreover, 63 water experts shared their views on the challenges facing the water sector through a questionnaire developed for this study. They emphasized the importance of effective water management in ensuring the sustainability of water resources and its role in addressing water shortages, pollution, and climate change. Based on the above, it is recommended to implement smart technologies for water quality monitoring, restrict agricultural and industrial discharges, phase out cesspits, improve wastewater treatment, and strengthen stakeholder collaboration.